INTRODUCTION TO LANGUAGE
LANGUAGE
1. Language is a symbol system based on pure or arbitrary
conventions…. (syane and jindal
2007:1)
2.
Language is the institution whereby humans communicate and interact with each
other by means of habitually used oral auditory arbitrary. (Hall, 1969 (ibid)
3.
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which a social
group cooperates (Bioch and Trager, 1942)
4.
Language is a system of vocal symbols used for human communications. (wardaugh-
1972)
5.
Language is a collection of signs which are arbitrary chosen and organized
according to certain fixed principles that are acceptable by the society.
6.
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by which thought is conveyed
from one human being (a speaker or writer) to another (a listener or reader)
7.
Language is a conventional system habitually system of vocal behavior by which
members of a community communicate with one another.
8.
Language is a learned and shared habitual system of vocal symbols through which
human beings in the same speech community interact and hence communicate in
terms of their common cultural experiences and expectations.
9.
Language is the system of communication in speech and writing that is used by
human beings.
NOTE:- with regard
to the above definitions, the most possible definition of language may be this
“Language is a system of arbitrary and conventional vocal symbols through
which
thought (message) is conveyed from one human
being to another i.e.: from the speaker or order to the listener or
reader.
ELEMENTS OF
LANGUAGE
The
definition of language consists of several key terms/elements as follows.
1.
System
(a)
Language is a system in the sense that it is a collection of sign or symbols
i.e. It assembles together the smaller units to form the larger units and these
units are arranged in a regular order for example:- phonemes-syllable-morphemes-words-phrases-clauses-sentences-paragraph-comprehension.
(b) Language is constituted by several elements
which are arranged in a regular fixed order, such elements include subject,
verb, object, complement and adverbial.
For
example: - The boy has been here since yesterday
S
V
A A
He left your book in my room last week
S V
O
A
A
(c) Language being a system is also constituted by
various subsystems such as sound system, structural system and meaning system.
2. Arbitrary
The arbitrariness of language is proven by the following facts.
(a) In language there is no correspondence
(similarity) between the symbols (sound or letters) and the realities, meanings
or objects which are represented by those symbols.
For example: - the
word dog with the four legged animal, table as a piece of furniture.
However language is arbitrary due to the fact that the
linguistic symbols used in language were just picked haphazardly (with no
particular plan or organization) i.e. there was no any formal meeting by any
speech community which sat to form language. Each speech community has its own
symbols representing different realities.
3. Vocal
Language is said to be vocal since each language is based on speech sounds that
are produced by the vocal organs, (organ of the mouth, nose and throat) i.e. in
spoken form language is presented through the vocal sounds (sounds from the
mouth)
4. Symbol
Language is symbolic in the sense that language uses signs or symbols to
represent realities, object
or ideas.
There are
two major types of symbols used in language
(a) The acoustic images (the sounds)
(b) The graphic signs (orthography letters 1 spellings)
These symbols represent realities, objects or ideas in spoken language; we use
the acoustic images (sounds) where as in written language we use the graphic
signs (letters)
5 Conventional
Language is conventional due to the fact that any human language (system of
communication) ought to be mutually acceptable and understood by a particular
speech community i.e. all members who use that particular language.
6. Message
Message is the key word language has the message since it is the message that
is conveyed from one human being to another i.e. language is used as the medium
through which ideas, opinions or thought is carried from the speaker or writer
to the listener or reader. The participants in language communicate the message
to each other thus message is the central element in any communication system
(no message, no communication)
7. Human being
Language is used by human beings i.e. it has been proved that it is only the
human being among all creatures who communicate by the use of language other
creature do communicate using different systems or forms but they never use
language as there means of communication.
A LANGUAGE/A COMMUNITY LANGUAGE
A LANGUAGE is a
specific from (system) of speech which is conventional and mutually understood
by a specific speech community i.e. it refers to one particular language as
used and spoken by a particular community.
The speech community can be ethnic group, a tribe, a nation or even the whole
continent for example Kichagga is a language of chagga people of Kilimanjaro
region, Kingoni a language of ngoni as a tribe,Swahili a language
of Tanzania as a nation, English a language of Europe, America and Australia as
continents.
Features of a Language
A language has several features or characteristics:-
1. It is a specific concept referring to one particular form of speech
(system of communication) that is mutually used and understood by a particular
speech community.
2. A language is used to express the culture of a particular speech
community i.e. a language is the central element of a particular culture hence
a language and culture are
inseparable.
3. A language changes and develops with the change and development of culture
i.e. dynamism of a language is usually influenced by culture.
4. A language can also change on contact with the foreigners through different
activities such as trade, tours, colonial domination
etc.
5. A language usually may have script (forms or spellings) different from other
languages i.e. each language has different orthography spellings.
6. A language may have phonological and grammatical systems (pronunciation and
structure) different from other languages.
7. A language may belong to a group with other languages which stem from the
same ancient language for example Kiswahili, Kisukuma, Kihaya, Kinyakyusa etc
are among
the Bantu languages hence each language belongs to Bantu
language.
THE BASIC
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN LANGUAGE AND A LANGUAGE
1. LANGUAGE Is a universal concept i.e. it refers to all language
in the world as used by human
beings.
While
A LANGUAGE: - Is a
specific concept i.e. it refers to only one particular system of Communication
that is used by a particular speech community.
2.
Language does not belong to a particular speech community i.e. It doesn’t
have any specific group of
people who regard it as their own it belongs to
all human beings in general.
While
A Language
belongs to a particular speech community that uses it as the means of
communication among themselves. I.e. a language
is owned by a particular speech community e.g. English by
the British, French by the French etc.
3. Language has
no link with the culture of a particular community i.e. it cannot be
used to express the culture of one particular speech community.
While
A language
has a direct link with the culture of a particular speech community that uses
it i.e. Each particular language is used to express the culture of the people
who uses that particular language e.g. English for the English culture, Swahili
for the Swahili culture etc.
4.
Language is
static i.e. It doesn’t change with the change of culture and contact with
foreigners.
While
A language is dynamic as it usually changes and develops with the change of
culture as well
as the contact with foreigners.
UNIQUE PROPERTIES/ FEATURES OF HUMAN LANGUAGE
Human language has a number of defined properties
which uniquely distinguish it from communication systems (form) of other
creature such as animals and insects. i.e. there are several features which are
uniquely manifested (found) in human language and are unlikely to be found in
the communication system of other creatures, this acts as a prove to the fact
that it is only human beings who communicate through language where as other
creatures do not use language as their means of communication.
The following are the unique
characteristics or properties of the human language.
1.
Duality/ Double articulation
Human
language is organized or produced at two levels simultaneously
(a) Sound level
at which human beings are capable of producing the individual sounds which do
not convey any intrinsic meaning when they occur separately.
(b) Grammatical/ structural level at
which a human being produces the Meaningful units such as words or phrases.This
is achieved when the sounds combine together to form the
meaningful and grammatical units such as words or phrases.At this level it is
possible for the same sounds to form different words with different meaning
for example /i, b, n/ can combine to form nib and bin /e, t, a/ can combine to
form eat, ate, tea.Thus with a limited number of distinct sounds, we are
capable of producing a
very large number
of words which are distinct in meaning. This makes human beings
economical in the use of language. This feature cannot be manifested in the
communication
system of other non-human creature i.e.There signals are used at only on level.
2. Productivity/
Creativity
This is the feature of all human languages that novel/
new utterances are continually being produced or created i.e. language allows
speakers or writers to produce and understand new utterances/ sentences that
they have never produced or heard before.
This implies that due to the use of language, human beings are capable of
producing and understanding the new sentences produced by others.
This makes human language dynamic because all the time he or she strives to
produce or create new words, sentences or an utterance that is being understood
by both a speaker or writer and the hear or reader.
However at childhood, children try there level best to produce new utterances
or words. The features that cannot be found among communication systems of
other creatures, these creatures produce the signals that are usually static
i.e. they are the same and this cannot be produced in other forms to communicate
experience and events.
3. Arbitrariness
All human languages have arbitrariness in the sense
that there is no direct or natural connection or similarity correspondence
between the linguistic symbols and the message,
meaning or concept being represented by
those symbols. I.e. the linguistic signs or symbols have arbitrary relationship
with the reality or meaning (objects or concepts) they
represent or indicate. For example the word table
has no similarity with the object known as table.However for the majority of
animal signal, there does appear a clear connection
between the convey that message. For
example a hungry cat produces the cry that represents the actual state.
4. Interchangeability/
Reciprocity
Human language is unique because any person using the linguistic
system can both send and receive the message. I.e. human language allows
communicator to join here exchange
position. At one time the
communicator is a speaker and a listener at another time. This imply that when
one person is talking, the other is listening and when the listener
starts
responding, he or she becomes the
speaker and the person who was previously a speaker becomes a listener.However
this feature cannot be manifested among other creatures
because there is no room for
animals and other creatures to interchange positions as they usually produce
their signals at the same time.
5.
Displacement
Human language is displaced in the sense that the human language users (human
beings) are capable of producing and understanding the message in relation to
time and place. I.e.
Human beings are able to communicate the
message of the events of different times and places. This means
that human beings can convey the message of present, past and
future
time as well as the message related
to the event taking place at different places or locations e.g. distant event
such as football match in England.
However with human language human beings may
convey the message on both concrete and abstract phenomena. This is due to the
fact that, animal communication lacks this
property as they can only be able to
produce and understand the message in relation to only the immediate time and
place. I.e. they can convey the message on the event happening
now and here but not yesterday,
tomorrow and there.
6.
Cultural transmission/ learner ability
This is the process whereby language is passed on from
one generation to the next. I.e. human language is transmitted from one
individual to another not by physical inheritance but by learning – Human
language is not inherited genetically from parents instead it is acquired or
learned depending on the environment to which one is exposed. That why we say
language is culturally transmitted from one duration to another as it is
acquired in culture with other speakers and not from parental genes.
This implies that any human language is acquired through learning from one
generation to another. I.e. Every person gets language through learning but not
through inheritance from parents.However the general pattern of animal
communication is that the signals are instinct/ inborn and there are not
learning i.e. Animals and other there signals instinct without learning them.
7.
Specialization
Human language has the feature of specialization in
the sense that every society has its own physical and social experiences which
determine how the society sees its physical world i.e. the language of a
respective society would tend to describe and reflect the physical features and
social experiences which only exist in that society. This is proven by the fact
that it is very difficult to translate one language into another since
experiences in each language is different.However communication systems
(signals) used by animals and other creatures cut across the whole species of
animals without specializing to a particular group of the same species.
8. Discreteness
The sounds in human language are meaningfully distinct
I.e. the sounds used in language are only meaningfully especially when they are
part of a language. For example the words pig and big differ due the presence of
/p/ and /b/, ten and pen differ due to the presence of /t/ and /p/
This implies that each sound in language is treated as discrete.
9. Reflexiveness
This is the feature which enacts that human language
has the ability of talking about itself.
For example we are now using language to talk about language this property of
language by which human language talks about itself is what is referred to as
reflexiveness.
However it is not easily imaginable that animals are able to cry about their
cries so this property makes human; language different from human
communication.
Competence and performance in
language
Competence
refer to the knowledge of the whole language i.e. the ability not only to apply
the grammatical rules of a language in order to grammatically correct sentences
but also to know when and where to use those sentences and to
It also means the subconscious ability to judge the grammatically of expression
as used in a certain language.
NB:
The communicative competence includes the following
1. The knowledge of grammar
and vocabulary of a language
2. The knowledge of rules of
speaking and knowing to communicate according to topic and speech events
3. Knowing how
to use language appropriately i.e. Using language according to social setting
the relationship between speakers as well as according to a particular
occasion
performance
refers to as the actual use of language in concrete situation. It is determined
by choice of writing words suitable for the right situation. It also refers to
the
actual
use of language by individual in speech and writing i.e. the ability of a
person to use the knowledge of language to produce and understand the sentences
without
necessarily
adhering to grammatical rules.
NB: Competence
and performance go together due to the fact that competence proceeds
performance. Competence gives corrections to wrong expressions through
performance. But there are times when the two are not connected as one can have
performance without competence and vice
verse.
IMPLICATIONS OF COMPETENCE AND PERFORMANCE
- To show that our ability to use
language is governed by certain intuitive capacities. This is the reason to why
native speakers of the language is capable to say whether the
construction is correct or not even if they are unable to explain it
technically.
- It also shows that language ability of an
individual can be improved through the use of appropriate methods of language
teaching.
- Uses of the language have more in their
linguistic stores than what they produce. This is due to the fact that language
performance is affected by the number of factors such
as illness, tiredness, stress, etc
- Likewise it shows that language is
governed by rules. As it is common for the language users to correct errors and
mistakes in different constructions of language.This is
made possible because intuitively we are embedded with those rules
FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE
Human beings
can use language for different purposes,The following are the major function of
language
1.
Referential / communicative function
This is the use of language to convey factual or non-factual information
I.e. human being use language to
communicate with each other to pass information from each
other .
2. Expressive
or emotive function
This is the use of language
to express feelings, emotions or attitude. Man can convey his emotions by
screams, grunts, sobs and gestures,but still needs language for confirm or
elaborate those signals. Thus report feeling or
attitudes of the writer or speaker or of the subject, or evokes feelings in
the reader or listener fall under this function.
3. Cognitive or
Directive function
This is the use of language
for the purpose of influencing the behavior of others e.g. to command them to
do something, request them warm them. Thus language is used for the
purpose of causing (or preventing) overt
action. This is the most important function of language, it impart factual
information and commands. Passing information is absolutely
necessary e.g:- asking and answering
questions, reading instructions etc.
4. Phatic or
interrogation function
This is the use of language
to establish or maintain good social relationship among human beings
E.g. Greetings, cheering-up etc. Uses phrases
like "nice day today", "how do you do". Think of this
situation; Gorge coughs.Then his friend Musa says "Bless you". This
has got
no any informative content but intended to link people and make coexistence
peaceful and pleasant.
5. Poetic or
athletic function
This is the use of
language for pleasure of mind (asthetic) use language in its beauty pleasure.
I.e. language is used for
entertainment
e.g. Reading a certain
literature for enjoyment, language used in theater for performance – the use of
language in artistic way.
6. Meta
linguistic function
This is the use of language to talk about language.
I.e. Language for its own sake or the use of language to explain other language
concepts.
E.g. we are now learning language.
Other functions
7. Imperative
or Declarative
This the use of
language for the purpose of declaring something
E.g. Language used in ceremonies, meetings,
courts of law, church masses
8. Regulatory
function
Use of language for the purpose of
warning or imparting discipline to the people been spoken to and thus used in
order to win peoples respect
For example the language used by religious leaders
LANGUAGE POLICY IN TANZANIA
This language policy in Tanzania states that Swahili
language shall be used as the medium of instruction at the primary school level
and English remain the medium of instruction from secondary level to the
university level.
The government has accepted both English and Swahili to be used as official
languages.
However, the status of English is confusing as it is in transition between
being the foreign language and the second language that makes even Swahili in
the same transition between the second language and the first language.
NB: the use of either English or Swahili as the medium
of instruction has created a very hot debate since there people who support
English where as
other support Swahili.
ENGLISH IN SCHOOLS
At present English is used as medium of instruction in
secondary schools and higher learning institution. But there is a debate on
whether English should continue with the status it has or it should be replaced
by Swahili. Let us see the different arguments people have about English out to
be replaced by Swahili today.
Those who support the current English status.
Some of their points include the
following:
1. English is a language of today’s world business so
Tanzanian. So Tanzanian have to learn through it in order to function in
today’s world.
2.
English is a
well developed language due to its long history. Swahili lacks some important
vocabulary especially in science and technology.
3.
Many books
are written in English, so learning through English it is easier and less
costly than turning to Swahili. This group of people is
afraid of change because people think the government
has no money for changing the medium of instruction.
4.
English is
everyone’s property today. It is no longer colonial language. It is spoken in
different parts of the world so there is no justification
of equating English with colonialism.
5. Learning
through English makes a child divergent in class. A person who speaks many
different languages is like a person who is living in
many worlds because each language looks at the world
differently from other languages. So children should learn though English so
that they can explore.
People who propose the use of Swahili.
The
following are some of the points made.
1. English language is a
foreign language making students learn through a foreign language is like
colonizing their minds so we should get rid of their colonization.
2.Students
learn better when they use the language they know well. Unfortunately
Tanzanians do not know English well so making them continue learning through it
endangers education in Tanzania.
3. Experience from developed countries
reveals that students learn using their countries languages and English or
other languages are learn as subjects but the medium of instruction is Korean
(Hangul) these people are technologically developed. They are the ones who
export television and other electronics products.
4.
English
should be taught as subject like the way French is taught. This will improve
its teaching. Currently English is very badly taught so the appeal is to
improve the teaching of English.
5. Swahili is
the language of African identity so we ought to teach using a lot if we are to
cherish our heritage
6. No language
is endowed with scientific knowledge so it is a myth to believe that English is
the language of science and technology. Any language including Swahili can be a
metalanguage of science and technology.
7. Already teachers are using code mixing.
If you observe many classes you will discover that teachers speak a lot of
Swahili in the class room.
So we need to formalize that use of Swahili.
From the argument of both groups, it seems there is a
language problem in Tanzania. It seems both English and Swahili are needed. The
problem is the status each language is to have. We may argue here that it is
possible to teach through Swahili from primary school to University level that
will be possible if the government changes its language policy in Education.This
may be possible without endangering English. However there has to be some well
trained teachers who will teach English.
Translation of the existing literature will not be necessary if English is
taught well; this is because students who learn through Swahili will also
master English provided it is taught well. Having very competent teachers is an
investment so there should be purposefully effort to effect the change.
A LANGUAGE/ SPEECH COMMUNITY
This refer to a group of people who share or regard
themselves as sharing the same language or language variety i.e. it is a group
of people who mutually understand and hence can speak and use one particular
language. For example Swahili language community of East Africa, Bengali
language community of Bangladesh, Hehe language community of Iringa region.
LANGUAGE VARIETIES
What is a language variety?
A language variety is any kind of language or any particular kind of
language which arises according to difference factors such as the use and the
user. Basically language varieties arise due to two basic factors i.e. the use
and the user.
There are two
major language varieties:-
(a) Register
This is the language variety which arises according to
the use.
These determine by several factors such as occupation, field of discourse
(Topic), Tenor of discourse (status), mode of discourse (media), Modality
(channel), Doman (Function).
(b) Dialect
This is the language variety (variation) that arises
according to the user. This var111iety is determined by several factors such as
social class or social group, geographical area or location, age, sex,
profession etc.
Dialects differ from one another in terms of vocabulary, pronunciation (accent)
and grammar but the most noticeable feature is pronunciation (accent)
TYPES OF DIALECTS
There are
three major Dialectical varieties of a language.
(a) Sociolect /
Social dialect
This is the language variety (type of dialect) which
arises according to social class or group i.e. it is the variety of language
which used or spoken by people who belong to a particular social class or group
such as high class us middle class low class, educated us non – educated,
initiated us non – initiate the rich us the poor. The grouping of people into
different classes is marked with regard to education back ground, economics
status as well as traditions and customs.
(b) Geographical
/ Regional dialect
This is the variety of language according to
geographical location or area i.e. it is the variety of language as used or
spoken by inhabitants of a particular place, part or geographical location, for
example British English, American English, Australian English, South African
English, akwngusa vs Kipemba, Scottish vs Kimachame vs Kirombo vs Kimarangu vs
Kibosho.
(c) Idiolect
This is the
language variety which arises according to an – individual personal i.e. It is
the variety of a language which is used by an individual person in speech or
writing
NB: The Individual variety of language is mostly marked in terms of diction
(choice of words) the command of language as well as the accent.
THE BASIC
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A LANGUAGE AND A DIALECT
A language and a dialect differ in the following ways
(i) The
difference in size
A language is bigger than a dialect in the sense that
it has more speakers than a dialect. At the same time a language is spoken in a
larger area than that of a dialect, for example the number of English
speakers in general is bigger than that of south Africa English likewise
English language is spoken in more than one continent but American English is
spoken in America.
(ii) Difference
in prestige status
A language is more prestigious than a dialect i.e. it
has a higher status than the status of dialect – people feel better/
prestigious when they are said to speak a language than when they are said to
speak a dialect. For example English speakers feel better than the American
English speakers.
(iii) The
difference in mutual intelligibility:
Mutual Intelligibility is the stake
in which a language or dialect is mutual understood acceptable by all the
members. This implies that dialects are mutual intelligible than languages i.e.
speakers of different dialects of the same language can understand each other
whereas the speakers of different language cannot understand each other. For
example speakers of American English and British English are mutually
intelligible since the two are the dialect of the same cannot understand each
other because the two are different languages
NB: Dialects differ from one another in terms of vocabulary pronunciation
(ascent) as well as grammar.
CAUSES OF LANGUAGE VARIETIES
What causes
language variation?
There are several reasons for language variation the
some of them as follow;
Geographical
differences.
Geographical
extent is one among the causes of language variation as people who live in
different geographical area tend to speak differently from each other. The
natural barriers such as mountains big rivers and huge forest are among things
that lead to language variation, this is due to the fact that shay affect
contacts from one side to another. Geographical distance can be region wise i.e.
within one country b (from one region to another) or National wise i.e. One
country and another. For example Nigerian English, American English as well as
British English, because of limited contact between those countries each
country will speak her own language variety.
Occupation.
People of
different occupations have different language styles. As the lawyers use
language which is characterized by special term and use long and complex
sentences in their legal documents while the language journalism is different
from that of the lawyers as the journalist use embellished language and their
sentences most of the time starts with adverbial elements. Normally each
occupation group has their own jargons which differentiate them from another
group. Those jargons can only be understood among people of the some
occupation. For example adjourn Commence, mutatis mutandis are the jargons
which are dominant in legal language.
Age differences
Also these cause language variations as people of different age have
different language habit as a result they tend to use language in different
way. The children use simple language and sometimes ungrammatical because they
have not yet.- Mastered the language. While the youth tends to us slang which
is less preferred by elders, the differences we observe among these language
users lead to language variation.
Sex differences.
Women and men
show significance differences in language use. Some of these differences are
physiological and some of them are sociological. Physiologically women use high
pitch while men use low pitch as a result of vibration of vocal Cords. Socially
there are words which are highly used by men and there are those which are used
by women. Sometimes men tends to use unpleasant words (rude/ harsh) in an case
way while women tend to be very selective in their diction (choice of words) As
a result the two groups leads to language variation.
Social classes.
Normally the
society is stratified, now the classes which are found in our society tend to have
different language style for example the class of workers have their own
language style which is different from the class of farmers likewise the class
of educated people is said to use the standard language while uneducated class
use non – standard language
Individuality/ idiolect
This refers to individuals
language habits that make one language user to be different from other users of
the some language. This is determined by the individuals choice of words,
having particular voice quality, use of certain expressions and the use of
Paralinguistic features An individuality mark the identity of someone hence you
can be able to say that someone is speaking as you already know his or her
style. Having those individual features which differentiate from one language
user to another user of the some language, leads to variation of language.
Basic concept of language
(a) First language (Mother language)
This is the
language that a child acquires from his or her parent / family at the childhood
such as a language is not learn but it is only
acquired by listening and imitating. Once can
know how to speak it but not to write it. For example Kingoni of the Wangoni,
Kihehe of
the Wahehe, Kinyakyusa of the Nyakyusa.
(b) Second
language
This is the language which is learn after the acquisition of the first
language. This language is usually learn formal at
school through
drills organized and supervised by
the teachers. For example Swahili in Tanzania and English in Kenya, Uganda and
Zambia.
(c) Foreign
language
This is the language that has been adopted and hence used or spoken in a
particular country from another country it is the language used
or spoken outside its original native speakers
(used or spoken by non – native speakers) for example English in African
countries, French
in African Countries, Swahili in American or
European countries or some other African countries.
(d) National
language
This is the language that has been selected and accepted by the government so
that it should be and is being used as the major tool of
communication by the majority of the
people within a particular country or a Nation.
It is the language which is widely spoken in the largest part of the
country.The National language ought to be one of the official language
in the country and also needs to be a
standard language.
The
National language likewise ought to be the medium of instruction at any levels
of education in the country. For example Swahili in
Tanzania,English in Kenya, Zambia, Uganda,
Liberia etc. French in Cameroon, Senegal, DRC Congo, Gabon etc.
(e)
Official language
This is the language that has been selected and accepted by the government that
it should be used as a tool of communication in all
official matters and public places
within the country such as in the government officers, school, hospital, courts
of law, parliament etc.
An
official language must be standard i.e. the one with uniform spellings,
structure and pronunciations for example Swahili and English
are the two official language in Tanzania
(f) Standard
language
This
is the language which has its own orthography (spellings), structure and
pronunciations modified so that they are the same wherever the language is
spoken or used i.e. the language with uniform spellings, structure and
pronunciation.It is the variety of language which is generally taken as
prestigious recognized as correct and acceptable grammatically lexically and
phonologically.
The standard
language or dialect is the one used by educated people or the ruling class and
the one with high status on speech and writing of the educated
nature speakers of that language.
It is the
variety of language which is widely under stood, used in mass media, described
in dictionaries and its grammar so taught to the non – native speaker
when they learn it as the foreign language
Features of standard language
1. It is non – localized i.e. It is not restricted to a
certain particular region – it is widely spread in different regions.
2.
It is
usually taught in schools as a model of variety especially to the foreign
learners
3.
It is
thought to be a dialect of the upper class
4.
It is a
dialect that dominates the media in the world for example Television, serious
Newspapers and magazines, radio etc
How is a language
standardized
There are several processes that are normally involved in language
standardization
(a) Selection
Out of many dialects of a language, one is chosen in order to be standardized.
The choice is influenced by social factors. For
example the variety that is spoken by a class of
people who are considered to be important is more likely to be selected than
other varieties such as the variety of the rich
people; the royal family, the upper class etc will be favored in the selection.
(b) Codification
This is the practice of creating norm of usage; this is done by
writing the grammar of the selected dialect, dictionaries and
encyclopaedia.This process is meant to familiarize
people with the variety to be standardized
(c) Elaboration
Under this
process the role which the standard of dialect will play is made clear. For
example the role of dialect in education, management, government etc need to be
clearly explained
(d) Acceptance
At this stage the chosen dialect is voted for normally members of the
parliament accept the variety on behalf of the people from
there the language becomes standard.
(g) Pidgin
This is a new language which emerges
or arises as a contact vernacular between or among people (group of people) who
need to communicate but do not share a common language. I.e. it is a simplified
kind of language that develops when there is a contact between two groups of
people who have different linguistic background and these people have no other
language than the two languages they use or speak.
It is an auxiliary language which is
formed or arises between or among two groups of people who come into contact to
fulfill only certain limited communication needs or purposes. These people have
different language (without sharing a common language)
Types of pidgin
1.Temporary (Marginal)
This is the
pidgin which arises in a speech community and last or exist for a very short
time. This may happen between the expatriates and house servants or laborers or
among the soldiers from different countries when they are needed for a special
task on contract with fixed time. I.e. this language usually disappears after
the contact is over.
2. Expanded
This is the
pidgin language which exists for a reasonable duration of time and extends its
domains of use beyond or outside the spheres of its origin i.e. it is a type of
pidgin that develops in the Multi – lingual areas i.e. places that have many
languages.
In some countries this type of pidgin is even used in radio broadcast and
parliamentary debates and has even become a written language, codified in
dictionaries and used regularly in books and news – papers
NOTE: - The origin of pidgin is traced back with regard to
the triangular slave trade in Atlantic west Africa and west indies
coasts especially in the trade routes and coastal areas. For
example Tok – pisin is a good example of an English base
pidgin used in Papua New Guinea, West Africa.
Characteristics of pidgin
Pidgin has a number of characteristics features as follows
(i)
It is a new
language which emerges after the contact of two groups of people who had never
met before.
(ii) Pidgin
has no native speakers due to the fact that it is a new language that is formed
by two groups of people who
already have their own native Language. I.e. pidgin
does not belong to any particular group of people who use and
regard it as the native language.
(iii)The pidgin language is formed to fulfill certain limited communication
needs or function i.e. it has a limited range of
function as it is formed to cater for
Specific or limited purpose such as trade, business, conversation etc.
(iv)Pidgin has a unique
grammar with very simple syntactic structure than the lexified language such as
it lacks pluralism of
nouns, Concordia a agreement between the subject and predicate in the
third person.
(v) Pidgin is a temporary language which emerges and exist
for a short duration of time when it is extended and exist for a
long
time, it is when it becomes Creole.
(vi) The lexicon (vocabulary) of pidgin
is derived from another dominant language (lexified language) which guides the
grammar of the pidgin language.
(vii) Speakers of pidgin employ paralinguistic features such
as the use of gestures, sign etc. this is due to lack enough
vocabulary.
(h)Creole
This is a
pidgin language that arises as the mother tongue of a newly formed community of
people who do not share a common language other than an emerging or already
established pidgin.
It is the
expanded pidgin which has become the mother tongue (native language) of the new
members (generation) of a speech community i.e. It is a pidgin that has
acquires people who speak it as their first language. This is normally the case
when speakers of a pidgin bare children who know other language than a pidgin.
Creole is a
pidgin language which has been widely spoken and adopted as a mother tongue of
the new generation.
Examples of
Creole
English
lexified Jamaican, French
Krio –
English based Creole spoken in sierra – Leon
Guyana –
America
Gullah – USA
Characteristics of Creole
1.
It is not a
new language it is formed from pidgin. I.e. Creole comes into being through the
transformation of pidgin which has
become the mother tongue of a speech
community.
2. Creole has a community of native speakers i.e. it is formed from expanded
pidgin which become the mother tongue (native
language of the new generation) thus
Creole belongs to a particular speech community who uses it as the native
language.
3.
Creole has a
file range of function as any other language i.e. it is treated or regarded as
a full language and performs all functions
that any language can perform and hence used as the mother
tongue of the vast majority of particular countries for example English
lexified Jamaican used in Jamaica.
4. Creole has a
comprehensive grammar with its grammatical rules embodied with precise
syntactic systems than expanded pidgin i.e.
the syntax (grammar) of Creoles is obit more advance than
that of pidgin.
5. Creole is a permanent language since it is transformed from
expanded pidgin and exists in a particular geographical location or
country and used
permanently by a speech community. In some countries creoles may even
become the National language used
officially in public places,
codified in dictionaries etc.
6.
Creole has
comprehensive vocabulary which are derived from another dominant or lexifier
language i.e. Creole have more developed
vocabulary compared to pidgin.
(i)
International language
This is the language which has been
worldwide accepted as a tool of communication among various Nations of the
world. I.e. it is the language used or spoken in different Nations from
different continents of the world such a language ought to be accepted by UNO
as the major means of communication in the international forms.
At present it is only English and
French which have been accepted as the most prevailing international language.
Criteria
which make language international
There
are several factors to be considered in the promotion of a language to be
international
(i)
The number
of speakers that the language has in order for the language to become
international, it needs to have a reasonable number of the native and
non–native speakers. I.e. the language should either as a native language or a
non- native language. For example English is said to have over 600,000,000
speakers from different countries but surprisingly Chinese has about
900,000,000 speakers but it is not on international language. This is because
Chinese is only spoken by the native speakers within China.
(ii)
The number
of countries and continents i.e. the extent to which the language is
geographically dispersed.
In order for
the language to be international. It ought to be used or spoken in different
countries from different or various continents of the world. For example
English is used as the first language in many countries such as UK< USA<
Ireland, Australia, New-Zealand, Canada, the Caribbean countries and South
Africa. It is also used as the second language in the common wealth countries
such as Zimbabwe, Pakistan, Nigeria, India, Kenya etc the same applies for
French in West African countries.
(iii)
The
economics and political influence and power of the native speakers. I.e. how
economically and politically the native speakers are influential. This implies
that in order for the language to be international, its native speakers (the
countries were that language is used as a native language) should have a great
power and influence over other countries. For example the Americans and the
British being political and economical influential may force English as their
native language become international.
(iv)
The extent to which the language is the medium for
science, literature and other important areas or aspects. This is also referred
to the languages vehicular load. For the language to become international is
should be the medium (tool) for science and technology, literature and
other aspects of human life such as culture, economics, politics etc. this
implies that an international language needs to cater for several purposes or
functions rather than being only for communication, it should go beyond
communication.
(v)
Acceptability of the language by UNO
The
international language ought to be worldwide accepted by UNO and the world
educated linguists as the major means of communication in all international
affairs in the world. The language needs to be standard, codified (written in
Books) and used as one of the official language of UNO.
NB: With
above criteria English and French qualify to be the international language
(j) Lingua-Franca
This is a common language which is
adapted in the malt-lingual society (the society with many languages) in which
all the speakers are not proficient in all language being used or spoken. I.e.
it is the language which had been accepted as the common means of communication
in the community with different languages.
This is an auxiliary language that it used to
facilitates routine (day- to- day) communication between people who have
different linguistics backgrounds in that they have different language for
example Swahili in Tanzania is a lingua- franca English is a lingua- franca of
the world.
(k)Diglossia
This is a situation whereby two language or language
varieties coexist (exist side by side) in a community in which each language or
language variety is used for a different purpose or social function.
In this situation one language or
language variety has a higher status than another so one is considered to be
high and the other as low.
A high variety language is used for formal or serious
matters in the society such as in education official matter, public places,
international affairs etc on the other hand, the low variety (language is used
for informal uses or such as friendly letters, conversation.
The Diaglossic nature of language in
Tanzania entails the existence of three language English, Swahili, Ethnic
community language as Double overlapping Diaglossic due to the fact that one
language(Swahili) is used in both formal and informal domains when compared
with the vernacular language and English respectively.
This implies that when Swahili is
placed with vernaculars. It is considered as a high language is considered as
low. On the other hand when Swahili is placed with English, English is high
where as Swahili is low.
(l)Bilingualism
This is the ability of (the use by)
of an individual of two languages (or more) i.e. it is the situation whereby an
individual person has the ability to speak two (or more) languages.
A person with the ability of using
or speaking two languages is technique known as a Bilingual person.
The
following are the features of a Bilingual person:
1. Ability
to use, speak or know two languages equally well or perfectly.
2. The ability to use or speak one language and understand another language
without being able to speak or use it.
3. The ability to use each language in different types of situations or Domains
for example at home, at school or at work.
4. The ability to read and write in any one of the two language
5. The ability to use each language for a different communicating purpose for
example talking about personal life writing letter.
6. A Bilingual is the one who has learn two languages in the family.
7. A Bilingual is the one who has used two languages since childhood.
WHAT IS A LINGUIST?
Is a scholar
who studies language scientifically i.e. is a person who is specialized in the
scientific study of language (linguistics). A linguist is not necessary a
speaker of the language he or she is studying for example he or she study the
grammar of a certain language without being able to use of speak it.
ENGLISH IN TANZANIA
With
the present sociology-linguistics situation in Tanzania, English language has
acquired a certain status and role and hence in several domains as follows:-
- English is used as the major international language
Since Tanzania is among the countries in the world, it uses English in all
international affairs to communicate with people from other language
as well as the international conferences and meeting.
- English is used as the foreign language
This is due to fact that English has been adapted in to be used in Tanzania from another countries i.e. Britain, these came into being as a result of the British colonization of Tanzania. - English is used as the medium of instruction from
secondary school levels up to the university level I.e. the teaching and
learning process is conducted by or through the use of
English language except during the teaching of Swahili and French.
- .English language is used as one of the official
languages together with Swahili i.e. the Tanzanian Government has declared
both Swahili and English to be used in all official matters and public
places.
- .English language is used as one of the subjects at all
levels of education from primary school to the university level.
- .English language is in transition between enjoying the
status of the foreign language and the second language i.e. there are
situations whereby English is only used as a foreign language and
the other situation whereby the status of English is now changing into
being the second language especially in urban areas were Swahili is used
as the first language from being the second language.
SIGNIFICANCE OF LANGUAGE IN HUMAN SOCIETY
Language being the only
medium of communication used by human beings has a great role or significance
that it plays in human society as follows.
1.
Language as a unifying and dividing factor.
Language is
an important factor in the enforcing unity among the people i.e. it brings
members of the society together as either a sole means of communication or as
an element which inspires a sense of oneness or togetherness among the people
of a respective society. This putting together of members of a society makes
language a unifying factor.
For example Swahili has made Tanzania feel united due to the fact that
Tanzanians use Swahili as there day to day language the same applies to English
in UK and USA.
There are cases when language is said to be a dividing factor. This is when
language does not put members of the community together. This happens
especially in countries with multiplicity of languages i.e. the countries were
many language with or of more or less the same demographic or social importance
exist and each language users struggle for dominance of other languages in the
country, hence conflict for example in Nigeria there are three languages Igbo,
Hausa and Yoruba, in Benin Yoruba, Dogon and Ga. Rwanda/ Burundi – Hutu, Tutsi
In some countries, the foreign language have been adopted as their national
languages, for example English in Sierra Leone, Liberia and Uganda, French in
Senegal, Ivory Coast and DRC.
2.
Language as a factor for cultural and National
identity.
In a society there are many elements that could identify a particular cultural
entity such as dress, make ups, foods, taboos, particular manners
etc.Nonetheless
language is the most dominant element of culture which is more obvious and
specific than elements, that is the culture of a
particular community is
easily identified through the language used by that community.
However language is also
an identity of the nationality of an individual since a speaker speaking a
certain language can identify his country of
origin, which means language
among the ways that can identify nations in the world. For example if you are
in a foreign state and you’re heard
speaking Swahili, people
will without doubt, judge you as a Tanzanian.
3. Language as
a factor for social stratification
Language may play the role to faster, re-enforce or
perpetuate differences in the society. I.e. it facilitates the social classes
existing in the society. This is noted in the fact that the use of a certain
language or language variety determines the social classes existing in the
society determines the social class would tend to use a different variety of
language. These can be identified in the use of certain words, choice of words,
the command of language as well as the use of a certain accent (pronunciation)
Special stratification may involve educated Vs Non-educated, villagers Vs Urban
dwellers, poor Vs rich, farmers Vs Workers
4. Language as
a mirror of cultural and physical realities.
As a mirror it reflects an image, equally language
reflects all the accumulated knowledge, customs, traditions and believes and
other forms of experiences of a given social group. It also shows how people of
a given community define the world surrounding them. Language therefore is the
means by which cultural and physical experiences are accumulated, stored and
transmitted from one generation to another. For example the use of certain word
reflect the culture of the community using that word, such as Ugali reflect the
bantu culture as used in Swahili.
5. Language as
a factor social development
Language plays a very significant role in the
promotion of social activities and services such as school, hospital, water
supply, housing and transport etc. i.e. human beings used language to
co-ordinate various activities.
Through language we also get information through mass media such as newspapers,
radio and Television which in Euro accelerate social development.
Where a common language exist between leaders and masses, there is always a
sense of closeness, understanding and belongings hence the leaders are easily
implemented to promote social development i.e. when the policy makers
communicate their policies to the policy implementers and the implementers put
the policies in practice, in that way development is attained. Here language
plays a great role because these policies are presented using language but for
the countries were foreign language are adopted as National languages; there is
always a big gap between leaders and the masses and these for a hindrance for
social development.
6. Language as
tool or medium of communication.
Language facilitates the transfer of information from
one person or place to another. This is the central or most significant role of
language since language is the medium through which human beings communicate
their thoughts, ideas, opinions, experiences and expectations with language,
human society is able to communicate in various ways and events in different form
such as conversations, greetings, telephone, discussion, mass media
instructions etc. all these ways use language for disseminating
information.
THE STATUS OF ENGLISH IN THE WORLD AND IN TANZANIA
English has different status in different parts
of the world and Tanzania as follows:-
1. English as
an international language
English is an international language; the following are the factors which
qualify English language to be international language.
·
The number of speakers that
a language has, here reference is made to the number of native and non-native
speakers. English is said to have over 600 million speakers.
·
The extent
to which language is geographically dispersed, there we look at the number of
continents in which the language is used or needed. English is spoken in
almost all parts of inhabited parts of the world for that reason English
is used as the world’s lingua franca.
·
The economics and political
influence and power of the native speakers. I.e. how economically and
politically the native speakers are influential. This implies that in order for
the language to be international, its native speakers (the countries were that
language is used as a native language) should have a great power and influence
over other countries. For example the Americans and the British being political
and economical influential may force English as their native language become
international.
·
The extent to which the
language is the medium for science, literature and other important areas or
aspects. This is also referred to the languages vehicular load. For the
language to become international is should be the medium (tool) for
science and technology, literature and other aspects of human life such as
culture, economics, politics etc. this implies that an international language
needs to cater for several purposes or functions rather than being only for
communication, it should go beyond communication.
·
Acceptability of the language by UNO
The international language ought to be worldwide accepted by UNO and the world
educated linguists as the major means of communication in all international
affairs in the world. The language needs to be standard, codified
(written in Books) and used as one of the official language of UNO.
NB: With above criteria English and French qualify to be the international
language
2. English as a
native language
By native language we mean the first language. It is
the language which people acquire first before they are exposed to any other
language. English is used as a native language in Britain, U.S.A, Australia,
New Zealand, Canada, South Africa and the Caribbean. In countries such as Kenya
and Zimbabwe there are few people who speak English as their first language.
3. English as a
second language.
A Second language refers to a language which is not
one’s first language but is necessary for certain official, educational or
commercial activities.
English is a second language in most common wealth countries like Pakistan,
India, Nigeria, Kenya, Malawi, Zambia and other countries. It should be noted
here that a second language is defined by use so a second language differ from
a foreign language in that a second language is more useful in a place than a
foreign language in Tanzania for example French is a foreign because its use is
very limited.
4. English as
foreign language
A foreign language is used to mean a language that is
used by the same one across the countries such as to communicate with
foreigners reading books and newspaper commerce and travel. In short the use of
a language as a foreign one is very restricted in Rwanda, DRC, Burundi, Japan,
and China. English is used as foreign language.
5. English as a
national language
A national language is one which is considered to be
the mainly of a nation and which is officially declared so. E.g. Swahili is the
national language in Tanzania.
English is a national language in many common wealth countries such as Nigeria
and Zimbabwe.
In countries where there many languages of national status the term OFFICIAL
LANGUAGE is prepared. Example Canada where there is English and French.
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